ARTICLES

CHRISTIANITY ON THE ROAD

1. The faith from preaching

The final chapter of the Acts of the Apostles tells of Paul’s trip from Malta to Rome. Once they had arrived at Puteoli (Pozzuoli), Luke writes: “and thus we came to Rome” (28,14). These words can be applied to us, as participants in this Conference, and who, after a long and interesting trip, have arrived in Rome.
Jesus Christ preached his message on the streets of the villages and cities as well as on the roads of Palestine; he sent his disciples to go to the ends of the earth and preach his Gospel (Mt. 28,16-20; Mc. 16,15-18). Urged by this command of Jesus, his disciples spread the good news throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. Unlike pagan religious groups, Christianity was a missionary religion; it needed to be required; it needs to seek converts. The first Christians used the road system that the Romans had built for military purposes. Their travels in the first three centuries are the focus of my concern. Some journeys, such as those of Paul, are known through the Acts of Apostles and Paul’s letters; yet there are many other sources of information about Christian travelers of the second and third century. One can ask why Christians travelled so much in the first three centuries or how they travelled since they were not rich enough to pay for their travels and had had no right to use public transportation (cursus publicus). These are the questions of this paper.
Luke writes in his Gospel: “He (Jesus) went on his way through towns and villages, teaching, and journeying toward Jerusalem... After the master of the house arisen and locked the door, then will you outside knocking and saying, ‘Lord, open to us’. He will say to you in reply, ‘I do not know where you come from’. And you will begin to say, ‘We ate and drunk in your company, and you taught in our streets’“ (Lc. 13,22-26). Luke also presents Jesus as travelling from the Galilee to Jerusalem, where he will find his death.
Pliny the Younger, a politician and the governor of the Roman Province of Bithynia and Pontus, was a scrupulous and vigilant observer of the religious situation of his province. He writes a letter to Trajan about a legal process against Christians: “many persons of all ages and classes and of both sexes are being put in peril by accusation, and this will go on. The contagium of this superstition (superstitionis illius contagio) has spread not only in the cities, but in the villages and rural districts as well” (Epist. 10,96,9). To Pliny, Christianity is like a [disease], that spreads out and touches many people as a contagium; Christianity, this new superstition, needs personal contacts, people travelling from one place to another. Without such contacts the contagium would not affect others. At first the Christians had no special books aside from the Hebrew Bible in Greek, the Septuagint. When Christian books were written, however, we know almost nothing about whether pagans read them; it is possible to presume that quite a few people did read them, as shown, for example, by what Celsus wrote in the 180s.
Conversion came about by personal contacts, where not just the words, but especially the quality of Christian moral life was important. Paul expresses almost the same idea as Pliny, albeit in different words and in a different perspective, in the Letter to the Romans: “But how can they call on him in whom they have not believed? And how can they believe in him of whom they have not heard? And how can they hear without someone to preach? And how can people preach unless they are sent?... Thus faith comes from what is heard, and what is heard comes through the word of Christ” (Rom. 10,14-17: fides ex auditu). The Christian message, before it was written was an oral message that was transmitted viva voce: the normal means of communication in that time was fides ex auditu, meaning that faith was stimulated by messengers, preachers, travelers, and missionaries. While it is true that the first generations of Christians were committed to spreading their faith, they were all Jews. Hence, why did they preach to the Gentiles? As far as the writers of the New Testament were concerned, they did so because of a command from Jesus Christ; this led to a great rift between Jews and the new Jewish group. Behind their efforts was the idea that God wants, in the fullness of time, the salvation of all people. Hence, since faith is from hearing (ex auditu), all had to be given the opportunity to hear his word; whence their obligation to announce the Gospel.
In chapter XVI of Letter to the Romans, Paul sends his greetings to many people, whom he had probably met in the eastern part of the Roman Empire; whereas now they were in Rome. “I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a deaconess of the church at Cenchrae... Greet Prisca and Aquila, my fellow workers in Christ Jesus... Greet my beloved Epaenetus, who was the first convert in Asia for Christ. Greet Mary, who has worked hard among you. Greet Andronicus and Junias, my kinsmen and my fellow prisoners... Greet Ampliatus, my beloved in the Lord. Greet Urbanus, our fellow worker in Christ, and my beloved Stachys. Greet Apelles... Greet those who belong to the family of Aristobulus. Greet my kinsman Herodion. Greet those in the Lord who belong to the family of Narcissus. Greet... Tryphaena and Tryphosa. Greet the beloved Persis... Greet Rufus, also his mother and mine. Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas. Greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas” (Rom. 16,1-16). By Paul’s own admission he had not visited Rome before (1,10; 15,22), yet in this chapter he greets twenty-six persons by name. Many of them were associated with eastern Christian communities. Why were they in Rome? On business, or as missionaries? Their presence in Rome is a manifestation of the intense mobility of Christians in the first century.
Of this long list only Prisca (or Priscilla) and Aquila, are mentioned several times in the New Testament (1 Cor. 16,19; Rom. 16,3-5; Act. 1,8,2-3; 18,18.26; 2 Tim. 4:19). Aquila, a Jew from Pontus (Act. 18,2), and Prisca were Christians of Rome and belonged to the synagogue of the city; they were expelled from Rome in 49 by the Emperor Claudius because of the tumultuous controversies among the Roman Jews: “Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome”. Paul met them in Corinth, when they were already Christians; because Aquila was a trader (tentmaker) in the same goods, he stayed with them for a short time (Act. 18,3; cfr. 1 Cor. 11,7s) [one might ask how Paul found these Christians in Corinth], and after he went to stay at house of Titius Justus (Act. 18,7); later Aquila and Prisca moved to Ephesus with Paul, who left them there and went to Caesarea and Antioch (Act. 18,19s; 1 Cor. 16,19; 2 Tim. 4,19). Here, they probably helped Paul, when he was in great danger (1 Cor. 15,32; 2 Cor. 1,8-9; Acts). After the death of Emperor Claudius in 54 C.E., they returned to Rome, between the time of Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians and the letter to the Romans. Paul greets them first. “Aquila and Prisca were possibly sent as Paul’s vanguard to Rome, where he wanted to get a firm footing with his gospel before continuing to Spain” (Lampe, Anchor Bible 1,320). They were active missionaries. Apollos, for example, who only knew the baptism of John (Act. 18, 25), went from Alexandria to Ephesus where he was instructed “more accurately” by Aquila and Prisca in the faith of Jesus Christ (Act. 18, 26). Apollos, a missionary, became a co-worker of Paul (1 Cor. 16,12); he went to Acaia (Act. 18,27); then, in Corinth, it seems that he had great success (cfr. 1 Cor. 1,12; 4,6). From Corinth he and others went to meet Paul in Ephesus, for example, Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus (1 Cor. 16,12-17).
The road system, the security of travel, the Greek language and culture, and the Jewish Diaspora facilitated the travels of Christian missionaries. Because Paul knew many people living in Rome and he knew also some of the problems and tensions in that Christian community, another indication of the intense communication by the many travelers who went from one city to another. The richest illustration of the mobility of Christians comes from the relationship between Paul and the community of Corinth, ‘planted’ by him personally, while Apollos, he says, ‘watered it’ (1 Cor. 3,6). After a year and a half in Corinth, Paul went to Ephesus and set out for the eastern provinces (Act. 18,1ss) and went back to Ephesus. After his departure there was much communication between Paul and the Corinthians through messengers, travelers and letters. He wrote three letters to the Corinthians (cfr. 1 Cor. 5,9); Sosthenes, from Corinth, was with Paul at Ephesus (1 Cor. 1,1); Chloe’s people reported to Paul (1,11), as did a delegation that included Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus (16,17); a letter was sent to Paul from Corinth (7,1), that is, a letter other than the one to which he replied with First Corinthians. The communication went on: Titus was in Corinth (2 Cor. 12,16-18; 8,6); Paul sent Timothy to Corinth (2 Cor. 16,10-11, cfr. 4,17), although he may not have received a friendly welcome (perhaps because of a prior visit, Cfr. Anchor Bib. Dict. 1,1151). Paul knew well the problems, which were many and which upset the community. Paul also changed his plans at one point and went to Corinth for a “sorrowful visit” (2 Cor. 2,1-3; 12,21; 13,2); he postponed a third visit (12,14; 13,1).
Roland Allen suggests that Paul, in his evangelization, kept the Roman provinces in mind and focused his pastoral action in the cities that “were centers of Roman administration, of Greek culture, of Jewish influence, and even of a certain commercial importance”. Giving precedence to provinces more than to towns, Paul did not preach in every place; he passed through many towns without preaching, seeking nonetheless to establish centers where Christian communities were a point of reference and from which Christianity could spread to the surrounding areas, even as contagium (Pliny). In this way, Christians in the towns were responsible for the evangelization of the country, its villages and small towns. In Asia Minor many towns were Roman colonies, where the population spoke Latin. As evident in the letter of Pliny to Trajan, Christians were also in the villages. Thus, Paul could write to the Romans: “By the power of the Holy Spirit, so that from Jerusalem and as far round as Illyricum I have fully preached the Gospel of Christ, thus making it my ambition to preach the Gospel, not where Christ has already been named” (Rom. 15,19-20). Paul, the traveler, had established communities only in a few towns, and meanwhile he could write: “I no longer have any room for work in these regions... I hope to see you in passing as I go to Spain” (Rom. 15,23-24).
Apparently Christianity in the first century was mostly an urban phenomenon, established in the important cities located on the main routes. This allowed more communication between communities through travelling missionaries, occasional travelers, messengers, and not least the contra-missionaries.
Christian missionaries must also be seen in relation to the mobility of the society as a whole in that time; the possibility for travel was created by a great and widely-extended empire with its corresponding road system. The mobility of the early Church was incredible, not only by those known as apostles: the twelve, and other called apostles (a title that Paul uses for himself and for Barnabas, Silas and Apollos as well). Moreover, there were many wandering preachers, of whom we have some information, especially those who challenged Paul’s congregations. When we discover the presence of Christians in towns and villages early in the second century, we can ask who preached and taught the Christian faith in these areas. Travelling Christians, such as missionaries or simple Christian people spread the news. They built a network of communities and preserved the unity among them, sharing a common faith, exchanging news about the life of the church and its teaching, and discussing problems that arose. Travels also allowed the spread of Christian writings, especially because Christians were eager to know more, as Papias pointed out; travelers equally caused discussions and confrontations between different traditions and practices (especially, the Easter Controversy).
Christian preachers moved from one place to another place. As presented by Luke, Paul does not stay very long in the same place, with the exceptions of Corinth and Ephesus (Act. 18,11; 19,8; cfr. 20,31); he preferred to go to the synagogue to meet people; his co-workers were also travelers. Apollos seems to work independently, although he maintains a cordial relationship with Paul. Barnabas and Silas worked with Paul, but later worked on their own; all were called apostles. Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla) maintained a friendly relation with Paul, although they worked and travelled by themselves. In the second century, there were still traveling preachers: the martyr Papillus of Pergamum was a transient apostolos (Acta, ed. Harnack 1988, [Texte und Untersuchungen 3,3-4], pp. 440 ss; Atti e passioni dei martiri, [Fondazione Lorenzo Valla], Milano 1987, pp. 41 and 388).

2. Means of travel

The statement, “All roads lead to Rome” was true in the Roman Empire, because the Romans were very attentive to keeping in communication with the Capital, from which they travelled and to which varied delegations from the provinces came; less attention was given to the connections between provinces. Travel on the sea was very dangerous because ships were small. For example, just in 1853, 832 ships of the English navy were lost; in ancient times, too, shipwreck was very common. Hence many preferred to travel by land. Thus, road construction was important, although its greatest importance was the need for an efficient system of communication for the unity and the administration of the Empire.
In addition, the Romans built roads wherever there was a need for the military to travel rapidly. Christian apostles and those missionaries, sent to the cities where Jewish communities or pagan peoples were, made good use of the Roman road system, a system that greatly favored the spread of Christianity. In the centuries that followed, Christians travelled a great deal, on account of to the demands for contact and exchange among the various Christian communities, that is, beyond a need to verify their doctrine, they were anxious to learn more since doctrine was not yet a normative canon or a fixed body of doctrine. The community of Rossos turned to the Christians of Antioch to check on the Kerygma Petrou; the community of Papias sought to learn more about the life of the apostles from Christian travelers; Egesippus travelled to several communities. Polycarp went to Rome, not to Jerusalem, to meet the Roman community; even Irenaeus went to Rome, not elsewhere. In the second century, Abercius of Hierapolis in Asia Minor not only travelled to Rome but even to Nisibis; he must not have been very poor, but he used the Christian system of hospitality. He wrote: “He (Christ) sent me to Rome, to behold a Kingdom and to see a queen with golden robe and golden shoes... And I saw the plain of Syria, and all the cities, even Nisibis, having crossed the Euphrates. And everywhere I had associates”. In addition, already in the second and third centuries, there were several councils, especially concerning the Paschal controversy, and therefore the bishops had to get to the council sites; in the fourth century, they could take advantage of the cursus publicus, that is of the Roman postal system.
All Christian schools streamed to Rome in the second century: it seemed that a message did not work or acquire its real value if it was not brought to Rome. As roads converged on Rome as a reference point, so too all those who had a Christian doctrine to defend turned to Rome.
Although many travelled, they only brought with them what was necessary for their sustenance; hence, hospitality was very important. According to Matthew (10,9) and Luke (9,3), Jesus required that they not carry an extra burden: “Take no gold, nor silver, nor copper in your belts, no bag for your journey, nor two tunics, nor sandals, nor a staff; for the laborer deserves food”. Mark allowed Christians carry a staff: “He charged them to take nothing for their journey except a staff; no bread, no bag, no money in their belt; but to wear sandals and not to put on two tunics”. In Matthew the disciples were sent to the lost sheep of Israel (10,6). Both in Matthew and in Mark and Luke, the principle of the support of missionaries is established; even more, hospitality for a preacher of the Gospel is the same as receiving Christ himself and God the Father: “He who receives you receives me, and he who receives me receives him who sent me”.
This order of Jesus fit the reality of the travel in that time, when people were not rich. They could not bring many personal things with them if they did not have animals to carry them. To travel without excessive baggage made the mobility of missionaries possible and easier. It was not possible to walk 20 to 30 miles a day or go a long distance with heavy luggage. A tunic, a coat and a walking stick were necessary: the coat to cover oneself during the night. In the texts where apostolic travels and hospitality are addressed, there is no mention of animals. The life of missionaries was to be continuously on the road, without a fixed place or worldly goods: this was “the precept of the Gospel” (Didaché 11,3). If they were travelers, they had to be poor and were supported by the community, but without any salary (cf. Eusebius, Hist.Eccl. 3,37). “Itinerant Christians sought accommodation with these local Christians for a short time. What is envisaged is obviously not an isolated event, but a repeated and regular one. The newly-arrived are themselves without permanent residence, without a living, they are dependent on the support of the local Christians”. The pagan Lucianus of Samosata was struck by the hospitality that Christians practiced and through which the Christian, Peregrinus, not only lived without need (De morte Pereg. 16), but was visited by several delegates at the expense of the community (o.c. 12).
When the journeys along Roman roads were long, they travelled in groups, rather than walking alone: to defend themselves against bandits, to support and help one another, as well as to be able to converse and thus help to pass the time. Christians not only travelled in groups but in groups with other Christians.
Jerome, in the Vita Hilarionis, wrote that the area around Gaza was infested with bandits (2.8; 29.8; 61.1); in the Vita Malchi, he says that the road from Berea to Edessa was full of Saracens; hence, travellers walked in groups of 60 to be able to defend one another: women, children, the elderly, and men went together. But bandits were also rife on roads beyond those of Syria. Travelers often sang as they travelled, both to lighten the fatigue and to be a group. That is an experience with which I have been accustomed from my own youth. Augustine says: “Along the way, travelers are in the habit of singing; sing, but keep on walking. Ease your toil by singing, don’t fall in love with laziness. Sing and keep on walking” (Sermon 256.3).
Christians normally travelled with other Christians. If the group was only made up of Christians, they could speak of many things, including their religious experience, their convictions, their work to be stronger in faith; on the other hand, as often happened, especially on ships, Christians travelled with people of every kind and certainly spoke about their Christian faith or did some extraordinary deed as Paul did in Malta. Paul, when he moved from one place to another, always had companions for the journey: his collaborators. It was also possible to have relatives along for the journey, for example, one’s wife. In this case the whole family acted as missionaries, as was the case with Aquila and Priscilla. The presence of children could complicate the matter. Paul said, challengingly: “Do we not have the right to be accompanied by a sister as wife, as the other apostles and the brothers of the Lord and Cephas? Or is it only Barnabas and I who have no right to refrain from working for a living” (1 Cor. 9,5-7).

3. Hospitality

Human mobility in the Roman Empire required that there be a place to stay while on the road, both for people and for animals such as horses and cows. In addition to the need for shelter for the night, especially during cold or rainy weather, there was a need for food, water, personnel ‘specialized’ in the repair of the carts, blacksmiths for the animals and other primary necessities. Hospitality was very important in antiquity. Yet, hospitality was normally between friends and acquaintances, or perhaps among friends of friends. However, since many people travelled in the Roman empire, more than previously, a system of inns grew up along the main roads and in the cities. These inns did not offer a high quality of services but they were still useful for travelers. Although they were not expensive, some cost was involved, and Christian missionaries rarely had money to pay. However, lodging in these inns supplemented the traditional private hospitality.
Jews, not only for reasons connected with their religion and its laws of purity, were not permitted to have meals with Gentiles; they preferred to stay in the private houses. Joseph Flavius writes that the Essenes practiced warm hospitality: “They are found in every city and the brethren that come from elsewhere find an open door in their homes. They stay with them even though they had never met, as they would with their most intimate friends. They don’t bring anything with them other than arms for protection against thieves” (De bello iud. 2,8,4). After the baptism of Cornelius, Peter was at first criticized because he had food with him (Act. 11,1ff).
Christians were accepted in the homes of fellow Christians because they were not rich, not because of any law of purity, and, as we will see, they, too, did not carry many things with them. Travel was an essential aspect of the spreading of Christianity; but it was only possible because the practice of the hospitality. The information in the Gospels may concern what happened in the first decades. But, beyond those who did this missionary work in an official way, there were those who travelled for other reasons and thus acted as messengers of the Gospel.
Paul was certainly interested in this hospitality, even in planning his trips. He says “Contribute to the needs of the saints, practice hospitality” (Rom. 12,13; cf. 16,1; Rom. 15,28 f. on the plan to go to Spain by passing through Rome). In 1 Cor. 16,10 f., he asks that Timothy be welcomed in Corinth; in Phil. 2,29 he recommends Epaphroditus whom he is sending to Philippi; in Philem. 22 he asks that a room be prepared for his arrival. The author of the Third Letter of John also gives great importance to hospitality: “Beloved, it is a loyal thing you do when you render any service to the brethren, especially to strangers, who have testified to your love before the church. You will do well to send them on their journey as befits God’s service. For they have set out for his sake (Greek: uJpeVr gaVr tou= ojnovmatoò ejxe=lqon; lat. pro nomine profecti sunt) and have accepted nothing from the heathen. So we have to support such men, that we may be fellow workers in the truth”. This letter seems to be a letter of recommendation for travelling preachers, who travel to do their work and, following the counsels of the Gospel, do not bring anything with them and need hospitality. They are not normal travelers, because they travel for the name (as Christians). There are many other passages in the New Testament that call for hospitality: Hbr. 13,2: “Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers”; 1 Ptr. 4,9: “Practice hospitality ungrudgingly to one another”. That invitation to hospitality among Christians continues after New Testament times. Clement of Rome, writing to the Corinthians, praised them: “Who do not proclaim the magnificence of your habitual hospitality?”. Hermas praises hospitality (Com. 8,10; Simil. 9,27,2). Justin writes that in the liturgical gatherings, there was a collection for travelers (Apol. 1,67,6). According to Eusebius of Caesarea (HE IV,26), Melito of Sardis composed a work “On hospitality and the key”.
Christian exhortations to hospitality are parenetic, that is commonly accepted. The trip of Ignatius from Antioch to Rome seems to be a triumphal march because of the warmth of his reception along the way and because of the delegations that were sent to meet him. A Christian who could make contact with other Christians when he arrived in a city, traveled with him (Paul, too, was accompanied by Christians on his trip to Rome). Ignatius travelled to Rome by way of Asia Minor, passing through Philadelphia, Smryna, Troas, Neapolis, Philippi and Via Egnatia. He sent a letter ahead with someone who was going to Rome. The Acts of Ignatius see him as walking in the footsteps of Paul.
In these texts the hospitality is not something personal and private, but an institution of the local church. Bishops and deacons were charged to take care of it (1 Tim. 3,2; Tit. 1,8; cf. 1 Tim. 5,10) as one of their duties (Tit. 1,1; 1 Tim. 5,10). Hermas writes: “And from the tenth mountain, where trees which overshadowed certain sheep, they who believed were the following: bishops, who always received into their houses the servants of God, without dissimulation” (Simul. 9,27). Cyprian, at the time of the Decian perscution, wrote: sed et peregrinis si qui indigentes fuerint, sumptus seggeratis de quantitate mea propria quam apud Rogatianum compresbyterum nostrum dimisi (Ep. 17). We do not know how hospitality was carried out. Julian the Apostate noted that hospitality was a typically Christian institution and, in fact, he wanted to create a similar institution. The third letter of Clement described private hospitality in detail and what precautions needed to be taken when traveling: “When it happens that we are far from our homes and neighbors when sundown and the night overtake us, and the brethren press us, through love of the brotherhood and by reason of their affection for strangers, to stay with them...” (III Clem 2). The anonymous author then gives many details about hospitality through 5 chapters (2-6) and how the Christian is to behave when he is among the pagans.
It was normal, not only to give guests food and shelter, but even perfume (Mt. 7,44 ff.; Lc. 7,37 f. and 7,44; cf. Mc. 14,3; Mt. 26,6 f.; Io. 12,3 f.); in some eastern regions it was important to wash the feet of guests. “We holy men ... nor do women wash our feet for us, nor anoint us, nor prepare our bed for us, nor do we sleep where women sleep” (III Clem 3).
It was important to seek out worthy persons with whom to live: “whatever town or village you enter, find who is worthy in it” (Mt. 10,11). In Philippi Paul agreed to stay with his co-workers in the home of Lydia (Act. 16,15); in Corinth with Prisca and Aquila. As Paul and his companions approached Tyre, Acts reports (21,4): “and having sought out the disciples, we stayed there for seven days;” and further “we arrived at Ptolomais; and we greeted the brethren and stayed with them for one day” (Act. 21,7); “and the next day we resumed the trip and came to Caesarea, where we went to the house of Philip the Evangelist... We had been there several days ... when some of the disciples from Caesarea came along to lead us to the house of Mnason, a Cypriot, a disciple of long standing, with whom we were to stay (21,16). When we reached Jerusalem the brothers welcomed us warmly (21,8-17). Then later, Luke writes: “we reached Puteoli. There we found some brothers and we were urged to stay with them for seven days. And thus we came to Rome. The brothers from there heard about us and came as far as the Forum of Appius and Thre Taverns to meet us” (28,13-15). Some Christians from Puteoli proceeded them and gave the news that Paul was arriving. Thus, Paul was not by himself.
The Didachè has a chapter dedicated to hospitality. “Whoever comes and teaches you... receive him... If his presence is for the increase of righteousness and knowledge of the Lord, receive him as the Lord... Let every apostle who comes to you be received as the Lord, but he is not to remain with you more than one day, or a send if necessary; if he stays three days, he is a false prophet. And when an apostle goes away, let him take nothing but bread until he reaches his night’s resting place; if he asks for money he is a false prophet (11,1-3). Likewise, the Second Letter of John speaks of hospitality, although in the opposite sense, i.e., that there was no need to receive the unworthy. In the second and third letters of John we find the discussion of how to distinguish between worthy and unworthy travelers that stay with a community. Hermas describes a similar situation as well: a person must be proven and must conduct himself correctly to be able to receive hospitality (Mandate 11).

4. Conclusion

The Roman system of roads, the safety of those roads and therefore of those who travelled them, the Jewish diaspora, the desire to spread the Gospel and circulate Christian writings, the commitment to preserve communion among churches, public and private hospitality, all these things were significant factors in the spread of Christianity in the first centuries.
Angelo Di Berardino
Institutum Patristicum Augustinianum